(On the 30th anniversary of the opening of the first Jewish secondary school in the Republic of Moldova)

This year marks the 30th anniversary of the opening of the first state Jewish secondary school in Moldova. At that time, for the first time since 1940, the opportunity arose in Chisinau to obtain an education in a day school with an ethno-cultural Jewish component. A year after the opening of the secular Jewish School No. 22, School No. 15 "Chabad-Lubavitch" opened its doors with a religious emphasis. Both continue to operate successfully to this day.

In 2003, School No. 22 was reorganized into the ORT Herzl Technology Lyceum[1]. It became, in a sense, the successor to the ORT network, founded in 1880 in St. Petersburg. Over a century, ORT has transformed into an international federation headquartered in London with branches in more than 35 countries worldwide.

ORT first established a presence in Chisinau in 1919, while in modern Moldova, its branch was registered in August 2002. ORT-Moldova is engaged in the integration of information technologies into the educational process[2]. The directors of the school, and subsequently of the lyceum, were Mikhail Romanovich Lezner (1991–1996), Roman Mikhailovich Karachun (1996–2001), and since 2001, Svetlana Trofimovna Klimina.

In 2005, similar changes occurred at School No. 15 "Chabad-Lubavitch" — it was reorganized into the secular Rambam ORT Theoretical Lyceum[3]. Ilya Iosifovich Vaiselbuch became the school's first director in 1992, and from 1997 to the present day, it has been headed by Sofya Grigoryevna Shkolnik.

In this article, we examine the history of the establishment of Jewish school education in the Republic of Moldova — one of the key phases of the Jewish national revival.

General Political Context

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the democratization of public life in the USSR created the prerequisites for a cultural and religious renaissance of the numerous ethnic groups inhabiting the Soviet Union, and Jews were no exception.

Jewish Culture Societies began to emerge in various regions with demographically significant Jewish populations. In Moldova, such a Society (hereinafter JCS) was established in May 1989[4], initiating the revival of Jewish life in Soviet Moldova. This process was rapid and widespread — during 1989–1991, numerous ethno-cultural and religious Jewish organizations emerged in the republic.

Following the dissolution of the USSR, the political leadership of independent Moldova required the support of national minorities. In turn, the government adopted a series of legislative measures ensuring the rights and freedoms of minorities — in 1991, the State Department for National Issues of the Republic of Moldova was established to oversee and support the activities of national minority organizations, including Jewish ones[5].

The growth of national consciousness awakened an interest among Moldovan Jews in Yiddish and Hebrew, religious traditions, Jewish culture and history, and the preservation of Holocaust memory, among other things. However, at that time, both JCS leaders and the general public had only a vague conception of even the outlines of informal, let alone formal, Jewish education. In a literal sense, only those graduates of Jewish schools who completed their studies during the interwar period, when Bessarabia was part of the Kingdom of Romania, possessed traditional views on Jewish education.

In the early 1990s, the Soviet secondary school was perceived as outdated, both ideologically and conceptually. Independent Moldova, like all post-Soviet states, was only beginning to build a new educational system, taking into account its state interests.

By the late 1980s, the Moldavian SSR had gained limited experience with educational initiatives involving an ethno-cultural component, developed within academic and higher education spheres, which reflected the national aspirations of the Gagauz and Bulgarians[6]. In the 1988–1989 academic year, on the initiative of the rector of the Ion Creangă Chisinau State Pedagogical Institute, I. Borșevici, a pilot specialization in "Russian Language and Literature in National Schools" was opened in the Faculty of Philology, training teachers of Russian, Gagauz, and Bulgarian languages[7]. The corresponding order of the Minister of Public Education of the MSSR, "On the Improvement of the Study of National Languages in Schools with a Contingent of Students of Gagauz Nationality and Bulgarian Nationality," had been issued as early as 1986. This project proved highly viable.

Upon graduation, students (Gagauz and Bulgarians) had the opportunity to find employment in their field of study, and the state leadership planned to open, at a minimum, special classes or, at a maximum, schools with an ethno-cultural component within general education schools. The authorities of the Republic intended to implement the same mechanism for other national minorities.

Responsibility for the implementation of the aforementioned project was assigned to the Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Philology at the Ion Creangă Pedagogical Institute, N. A. Damian. According to her, "during 1989–1990, the rector of the institute mentioned several times that, in addition to the existing Gagauz and Bulgarian groups, a group for the study of Yiddish and Hebrew might be opened." However, subsequently, such a group was opened at another higher education institution in the republic — the Moldova State University.

Throughout 1989–1991, Moldovan Jews, primarily in Chisinau and major cities where Jewish Culture Societies had emerged — such as Tiraspol, Balti, and others — had their first opportunities for informal education through various courses, evening schools, yeshivas, and similar initiatives.

However, the enthusiasm and efforts of the republican JCS, along with the good intentions of the authorities, were insufficient to open the first Jewish school in Moldova.

The Initial Phase of the Establishment of Jewish Education

Despite a lack of experience and a severe shortage of professional personnel, the JCS of Moldova partially established a system of informal Jewish education in the capital. With the support of the republican JCS, the Chisinau Methodological Center for Jewish Culture and the Chisinau Center for Jewish Education were created. However, the Society was unable to satisfy the steadily growing demand for school-based Jewish education.

Professional assistance came from various Jewish organizations whose emissaries began working in Moldova: Chabad (December 1989), Betar (1990), the Jewish Agency for Israel "Jewish Agency" (March 1991), the Joint Distribution Committee (November 1991)[8], and others. These organizations made a significant contribution to the establishment and development of Jewish education in the Republic of Moldova.

The local Jewish press, which was experiencing a major boom at the time, played a significant role in discussing the issue. The newspaper "Our Voice" (Nash Golos), founded in 1990 as the publication of the JCS, became the leading outlet in this regard. (In the early 2000s, "Our Voice" ceased publication, after which "The Jewish Shtetl" became the main Jewish media outlet, but in 2016, on the initiative of the Jewish Community of the Republic of Moldova, the publication of the monthly "Our Voice" was resumed).

During the initial phase, Rabbi Zalman-Leib Abelsky (1927–2014), a representative of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement who subsequently assumed the position of Chief Rabbi of Chisinau and Moldova, became an active promoter of Jewish education for children. He arrived in the republic in late 1989[9].

In his memoirs, writer M. Khazin accurately described the personal qualities and contribution of Z.-L. Abelsky to the Jewish revival: "They said that on the very day after his arrival in Chisinau, Reb Zalman announced the opening of a yeshiva [Tomchei Tmimim], which had... only one student. But a week or two later, about 20 people were already studying there. Preparations for the opening of a Jewish kindergarten and a Jewish school were in full swing. One after another, classes for the study of Torah, Hebrew, and the history of Israel were opened at the synagogue... only with the arrival of Reb Zalman in Chisinau... did the genuine revival of Jewish spiritual and cultural life and national identity begin. Undoubtedly, his organizational and pedagogical talents contributed to the fulfillment of his complex mission..."[10]. It is also worth noting that Z.-L. Abelsky was at the origin of the founding of the Chisinau Jewish Religious Community (KIRO).

The cooperation between the Chisinau Center for Jewish Education and Rabbi Abelsky began to bear fruit. On April 18, 1991, a group with religious instruction opened in one of the kindergartens, as reported by the newspaper "Our Voice": "A dozen and a half children of four, six, and seven years of age, in addition to their regular kindergarten routine, will study Hebrew and Jewish traditions. The Chief Rabbi of Chisinau and Moldova, Reb Zalman-Leib, blessed the children and affixed... sacred mezuzahs to the doorposts of the rooms"[11].

"Betar" also actively participated in the first educational initiatives. "The founding meeting of the Betar Zionist youth organization was held at the National Jewish Museum [of Moldova], with the aim of continuing the work of the first Betar members," "Our Voice" wrote in its March 1991 issue. "They advocated for the preservation of Jewish traditions, the study of native history, and Hebrew..."[12].

Starting in January 1991, the Jewish Agency actively joined the process of informal Jewish education. (The official opening of the permanent representative office of the Jewish Agency in Moldova was timed to coincide with the 43rd anniversary of Israel's independence)[13].

One of the first announcements published in "Our Voice" on behalf of the Jewish Agency stated: "The Chisinau Methodological Center for Jewish Culture under the JCS of the SSR of Moldova and the Jewish Agency invites school students of grades 5 to 9 to a Sunday school. You will be able to study Jewish languages, Jewish history, religion, and culture. Classes are held on Sundays from 10:00 to 13:00"[14].

In early March of that year, the first representative of the Jewish Agency, Zvi Kiliman, a native of Moldova, arrived in Chisinau. In his interview with "Our Voice," he clearly defined the priorities of the Agency in the educational sphere: "I consider the primary goal to be assisting anyone who wishes to study Hebrew — children, youth, and adults... I also want to assist the JCS in organizing and uniting Jewish youth... We plan to open summer camps and sites for them, where children will study Jewish language, traditions, and history. Another goal is to establish Jewish Sunday schools in the cities and districts of the republic"[15].

The Confederation of Jewish Communities and Organizations of the USSR (Vaad) also contributed to awakening national consciousness among Jewish youth. In March 1991, an appeal was published in "Our Voice": "The Laboratory of Ethnic Psychology of Soviet Jews under the Vaad... announces an essay competition for school students on the topic 'Me and My Nationality'"[16].

It should be noted that Jewish school students from Moldova could obtain both formal and informal education outside the country.

The March 1991 issue of "Our Voice" reported that "the Lubavitcher Rebbe is implementing a program to assist Jewish children, primarily those affected by the Chernobyl disaster. Children aged 6 and older in Israel... study Jewish languages and traditions"[17]. In an explanatory interview with Rabbi Abelsky for the April issue of the same newspaper, it was specified that at the boarding school in the Israeli village of Kfar Chabad, "children receive a general education according to the state program in the volume provided for regular Israeli schools. The instruction has a religious orientation. From the age of 15, children can choose a profession and master it"[18].

A similar proposal was made to the Jews of Moldova by the Chief Rabbi of Romania, Dr. Moses Rosen, during an interview with the Rompress agency, published in "Our Voice" in April 1991: "...To gather a group of 50–60 children in Chisinau who would spend a year in Bucharest, studying in a general education school, and in their free time visit the synagogue, immersing themselves in the atmosphere of the Jewish community. For the summer holidays, we could accommodate the children at our camp near Brasov [Romania]. Our doors are open"[19].

In this connection, it should be noted that from the spring of 1991, an active information campaign aimed at popularizing informal Jewish education was conducted through "Our Voice." This was intended to prepare the ground for the transition to formal education and the opening of the first Jewish school in the country. The campaign primarily targeted Jewish families with school-age children, convincing parents of the priority of a school with an ethno-cultural Jewish component.

For instance, the entire front page of the April 1991 issue (No. 8) was dedicated to Jewish education for children and youth. In addition, two articles and two announcements pertained to the sphere of informal education.

Of particular interest is the appeal to Jewish children on the occasion of the holiday of Lag BaOmer. In our view, this served as an important signal to the Jewish community, demonstrating the readiness of the municipal authorities, at a minimum, to accommodate the cultural and religious characteristics of Jewish children: "Dear Jewish children! You will be welcome guests at the grand, first-ever children's rally in Chisinau and Moldova in honor of our national holiday, Lag BaOmer... By order of the Head of the City Department of Public Education of Chisinau, Mr. A. I. Mocraс, on May 2 of this year, all Jewish children are excused from lessons and classes to participate in the festive Lag BaOmer parade"[20].

Another significant factor was summer camps with a corresponding ethno-cultural and religious orientation. The summer educational and recreational camp organized by the JCS of Moldova jointly with the Jewish Agency in the village of Condrita near Chisinau gained the greatest popularity[21]. Opportunities for summer recreation for children also became available outside Moldova; for example, Chabad sent those interested to a Jewish camp near Dnipropetrovsk[22].

Immersion in the atmosphere of Jewish culture and traditions shaped national identity, and the enthusiastic feedback from the children was meant to encourage parents to enroll their heirs specifically in a Jewish school.

In parallel, steps were taken to train teaching staff. On April 23, 1991, the 2nd Republican Seminar for Hebrew Teachers, initiated by the Chisinau JCS, was held at the I. Manger Jewish Library. Teachers from Chisinau, Bender, Tiraspol, and Telenesti participated, and the seminar was led by educators from Israel[23].

On May 3, 1991, a meeting took place between the Prime Minister of the Republic of Moldova, M. G. Druc, and the permanent representative of the Jewish Agency in Moldova, Zvi Kiliman, where the opening of a "Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies" at the Moldova State University was discussed[24].

On May 20–21, 1991, the Jewish Agency, in cooperation with the Commercial Center of the JCS of Moldova, held a seminar in Chisinau with Israeli specialists on "The System of Education and Upbringing in Israel"[25]. This seminar was originally intended "for citizens departing... to Israel who hold the profession of teacher or educator." Despite this, following the event, "Our Voice" published a note stating that: "More than 50 people participated, including employees of the Ministry of Science and Education of the SSR of Moldova"[26].

It can be assumed that this seminar, as conceived by the JCS, was intended not only for potential repatriates but also to familiarize officials from the relevant ministry with the potential for developing Jewish education in Moldova.

Apparently, in April–May 1991, a decision in principle to open a Jewish school had already been made by the authorities, but legal preparations were still ongoing.

This is supported by: 1. The previously mentioned order of the Head of the City Department of Public Education of Chisinau dated May 2, 1991, excusing all Jewish children from lessons due to the Lag BaOmer celebrations; 2. An announcement published on the front page of "Our Voice" (May 1991), consisting of two parts — an appeal to parents: "Dear Jewish parents! For the first time, you have the opportunity to give your child a genuine Jewish education and upbringing," and to children: "Dear Jewish children! The Chisinau Synagogue[27] announces the enrollment of students in a Jewish school, where the study of Jewish subjects will be combined with general education subjects"[28].

Essentially, the announcement heralded the beginning of enrollment for the first Jewish school in Moldova, which was intended to have a religious orientation[29] and to operate under the auspices of the Chisinau Synagogue. (Since only one synagogue was active in Chisinau in the late 1980s, its historical name was not used in the newspapers of that period).

Even then, the seeds of a future conflict between the secular and religious segments of the community were visible. Everyone understood that the opening of the first Jewish school was largely due to the extensive work of the JCS, which had established a constructive dialogue with authorities at all levels. The issue of the Jewish school was just one item on the JCS's list of proposals to the country's leadership regarding the revival of Jewish culture.

The Position and Role of the Moldovan Authorities (1991)

The complex situation that had developed in Moldova by that time could have influenced the plans to open a Jewish school. Inter-ethnic tensions had intensified, and the situation surrounding the Transnistrian region was worsening.

It is also noteworthy that the first Prime Minister of Moldova, M. Druc (May 25, 1990 – May 28, 1991), was known for his radical views on the national question, as well as the status of the Russian language.

Thus, the problem lay not so much in the Jewish school itself as in the language of instruction. It was assumed that this would be Russian, so the opening of a Jewish school in Chisinau shifted from an educational issue to a political one.

In the first half of the 1990s, Russian-language schools were closed in the capital of Moldova with considerable frequency. The author of this article attended one such school.

In this regard, it is important to understand what factors, besides the efforts of the JCS, influenced the authorities' decision to open the first Jewish school with Russian as the language of instruction. Undoubtedly, the authority of the Chief Rabbi of Chisinau and Moldova, Z.-L. Abelsky, was of great importance. The support of the Jewish Agency in Moldova and other Israeli organizations also played a role. However, all the domestic and foreign policy complexities that determined this process remain a subject for separate research.

At the same time, it is appropriate to draw attention to an interesting episode related to the events of those years. During the period 1989–1992, Prime Minister M. Druc was one of the leaders of the nationalist Popular Front of Moldova. The Popular Front practically came to power in the country in early 1990, and later formed a faction in the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova, where representatives of the Popular Front occupied all leadership positions. Druc was also a leader of the movement for the unification of Moldova with Romania — an idea that enjoyed widespread popularity, including among officials. The initiated Romanianization of all spheres of public life led (not without the help of opposition leaders) to an outbreak of discontent in the Russian-speaking regions of the republic. This resulted in the proclamation of the Gagauz Republic and the Transnistrian Moldavian SSR, which the leaders of the Popular Front were unable to prevent[30].

Thus, for the Moldovan authorities of that time, the support of Romania was important, both in the context of the current political situation and on matters concerning the future political structure of the country[31].

From our point of view, the question of the influence of the Chief Rabbi of Romania, M. Rosen (1912–1994), on the process of Jewish revival in Moldova is extremely interesting. From 1948, Rosen was the permanent Chief Rabbi of Romania, a member of the Communist Party, and a member of parliament. Due to his immense authority and political influence in Romania and beyond, Rosen's opinion was respected in Moldova. "The authority of Moses Rosen," wrote the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, Lord Jakobovits, "is unquestionable and great both within the country and internationally, among all Jews, wherever they live. He is the bearer of the word and spirit of our people. He is listened to, his books are read. Is this not prestige?"[32].

In this connection, Rosen's interview with the Rompress agency, fragments of which were reproduced by "Our Voice" in April 1991, appears symptomatic. In the interview, the rabbi emphasized that the Jews of Romania had maintained a certain connection with the Chisinau Jewish community since the mid-1980s. Furthermore (and this is interesting in the context of our topic), Rosen mentioned that "In December [1990], we received two consultants to the Prime Minister of Moldova [i.e., M. Druc] as guests. I took advantage of this to offer book shipments from our side, necessary consultations, etc.". It can be assumed that during this meeting, the issue of Jewish school education was also raised, since Rosen wished to organize, as noted, a year of study for 50–60 Jewish children in Bucharest[33]. The consultations initiated by the Moldovan leadership with M. Rosen were entirely logical, given that Chisinau had no experience in building relations with the Jewish population on a new democratic basis.

The meeting between the Chief Rabbi of Romania and the consultants to the Prime Minister of Moldova could well have influenced the position of the country's leadership regarding a Jewish school with Russian as the language of instruction, as well as a number of other decisions related to the Jewish revival in the Republic of Moldova.

Despite some support from M. Rosen, the actions of the JCS of Moldova to open a Jewish school appear even more significant. This is illustrated by the events of July–August 1991.

On July 12, 1991, representatives of the Chisinau JCS met with the President of the Republic, M. Snegur. "During a warm, candid conversation, issues were discussed... including the development of Jewish culture..."[34]. In his closing remarks, the President expressed readiness to "consider in a positive spirit the proposals and requests expressed" by the Chisinau JCS, and also emphasized that: "Although with some delay... we will apparently issue a decree concerning the Jews of Moldova"[35]. At the same time, Snegur made clear what kind of support he expected from the Chisinau JCS: "[M. Snegur] emphasized the importance of the republic's international relations with foreign, particularly Israeli, business circles"[36].

Exactly one month later, on August 12, 1991, a presidential decree was signed "On Measures to Ensure the Development of Jewish National Culture and Satisfy the Social Needs of the Jewish Population of the Republic of Moldova," the second paragraph of which stated: "The Government of the Republic of Moldova ... shall adopt a corresponding decision on the implementation of the proposals of the Jewish Culture Society of the Republic of Moldova, which shall provide for:

• the organization of a department of Judaic studies at the Moldova State University for the purpose of training specialists in Hebrew and Yiddish, and the history and culture of the Jews of Moldova;

• the opening of a Jewish general education school in the city of Chisinau and separate classes in other cities of the republic where necessary"[37].

Thus, a "green light" was given to Jewish higher and secondary education by the official authorities in the Republic of Moldova.

Jewish Education and "Jewish Wars" at the Dawn of Moldovan Independence

A few days later, on August 16, 1991, the opening of a Jewish school in the capital was discussed at a meeting of the Chisinau JCS. "Our Voice" wrote about the dispute that arose then: "A sharp discussion arose regarding the upcoming opening of a Jewish secondary school in Chisinau; representatives of the Jewish community [led by Rabbi Z.-L. Abelsky] insisted on the strictly religious character of this school, in particular, on the admission only of those Jewish children who are Jewish by maternal descent. This point of view did not find support among the majority of those present, and a corresponding resolution was adopted as a result of the vote"[38]. One can only guess how intense this discussion was. Obviously, the position of the secular segment of the Chisinau JCS came as an unpleasant surprise to the representatives of the religious community.

Apparently, the leadership of the Chisinau JCS did not express any views regarding the character of the future school, and Rabbi Abelsky, of course, assumed that it should have a religious orientation.

The Chief Rabbi of Moldova had far-reaching plans. He wanted to create in Chisinau, jointly with other Jewish organizations, a unique religious and educational complex. The only active synagogue in the capital was located in Iachimov Lane, on the basis of which a yeshiva was opened, and various educational events were conducted. Subsequently, on the initiative of Z.-L. Abelsky, Sovetskaya Street, where the future religious and educational complex was to be built, was renamed Rabbi Tsirelson Street, and Iachimov Lane was renamed Chabad-Lubavitch Street. They are located within a few minutes' walk of each other.

The main group of buildings of the complex was intended to be located on Rabbi Tsirelson Street. In an interview with "Our Voice" in April 1991, architect S. Shoikhet said: "...with architect B. Waisbein, we are busy with the project of a Jewish cultural center in Chisinau. Once, not far from the synagogue, on the street... [which] now... bears the name of Rabbi Tsirelson, there was an entire complex consisting of a cheder, a yeshiva, and an almshouse. Now only one half-ruined building remains, which we intend to restore... This will be a complex of one and a half hectares, which will include a hotel, a canteen, a bookstore, a library, and, of course, a Jewish school"[39].

In another issue, an appeal by Z.-L. Abelsky to the government of the Republic of Moldova appeared on the front page: "Through the restoration of several dilapidated single-story houses from the 19th century and partially new construction, it is planned to open a yeshiva, a canteen, a bakery, a lecture hall with classrooms, etc., in Iachimov Lane. All this, together with the active synagogue... will form the Jewish Religious Center in Chisinau in the future. The Prime Minister of the republic, V. Muravschi, reviewed the proposals and gave corresponding instructions..."[40]. Apparently, the appeal was prepared before the vote on the character of the school, but its content indicates that Abelsky was seriously preparing for this event. However, restoring the dilapidated buildings near the synagogue required time, so the school would not have opened before 1992. One can only imagine how the Chief Rabbi of Chisinau and Moldova received the results of the vote organized by the Chisinau JCS.

The consequences of this situation for relations between the secular and religious wings of the JCS of Moldova were obvious. The secular leadership of the Society could not allow access to Jewish education to be restricted only to children who were Jewish according to Halakha.

In this matter, the Chisinau JCS was supported by the Israeli Liaison Bureau "Nativ," which was engaged in the repatriation of individuals from the USSR who met the criteria of the Law of Return[41]. (Parenthetically, we note that in most CIS countries, including Moldova, "Nativ" began operations earlier than other Jewish organizations, including the Jewish Agency, which appeared in the Republic of Moldova in March 1991, and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee "Joint," whose representative office opened in November 1991)[42].

Following the vote, the situation began to escalate. Proponents of the religious school, like their opponents, were not prepared to yield. The matter eventually involved the Chisinau municipal education department. It was on its initiative that on August 30, 1991, in the presence of the Deputy Head of the municipal education department, D. Ivanov, and the parents of the first students of the Jewish school, public debates took place between the parties to the conflict.

An article in "Our Voice" with the telling title "Dotting the i's" noted that "...those assembled became arbiters in an almost theological dispute — whether the school would be secular or religious." The Chisinau Jewish Religious Community (hereinafter KIRO) was represented by its chairman, I. Vaiselbuch, who arrived accompanied by a group of young rabbis. From the Chisinau JCS, "two deputy chairmen and two staff members of 'Our Voice'" were present. I. Vaiselbuch proposed the option of "not a religious, not a secular, but simply a Jewish school." For this, KIRO was prepared to make several concessions, such as coeducation of boys and girls. At the same time, two conditions were set: 1. The Chief Rabbi of Chisinau and Moldova must become the "patron of the school"; 2. Only halakhic Jews would be allowed to study at the school.

The outcome of the debate was predetermined, since "the majority of parents had submitted applications specifically for the secular school and, while having nothing against religiosity... rejected any division on national or other grounds... The Deputy Head of the municipal education department, Ivanov, clearly and timely dotted all the i's: the school is state-run, established in accordance with the Decree of President Snegur, and will operate according to a general education curriculum with the inclusion of... Jewish subjects that parents deem useful for their children."

In order to allow KIRO to participate in the life of the Jewish school, the meeting decided to "establish a board of trustees under the director consisting of representatives of interested Jewish organizations..."[43].

In this situation, the municipal authorities sought to defuse the conflict at an early stage. For their part, the leadership of Moldova did not wish to add another unresolved inter-ethnic problem to the list, so a simple and logical solution was found — to offer KIRO the opportunity to open a second state Jewish school in the capital with a religious orientation, based on the requirements originally set by this community.

Consequently, despite all difficulties, in late August 1991, official enrollment began for the first Jewish secondary educational institution in the Republic of Moldova — Jewish Secondary School No. 22[44].

At that time, a regular column titled "How We Want to See the Jewish School" appeared in "Our Voice"[45]. This was a necessity of the times, as few understood what a "post-Soviet" general education school, a school with an ethno-cultural component, let alone a Jewish school, should look like.

By then, general education Jewish schools had opened in various parts of the former USSR (in Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Chisinau, Riga, and elsewhere), joining the Israeli "Heftziba" project.

This project, developed on the initiative of the Israeli Minister of Education, Zevulun Hammer, jointly with the "Nativ" organization[46], began implementation in 1990. Within its framework, Hebrew language courses, informal education groups, Sunday schools, and seminars for training local teachers of Hebrew and Jewish traditions operated.

At the same time, the struggle for the first Jewish school reached a new level. Representatives of KIRO and the Chisinau JCS met repeatedly in the offices of officials at various levels. At one such meeting in the autumn of 1991 at the State Department for National Issues of the Republic of Moldova, the first director of School No. 22, Mikhail Lezner, Rabbi Z.-L. Abelsky, and representatives of KIRO and the Chisinau JCS were present. This meeting did not alter the status of the first Jewish school, but once again demonstrated the necessity of opening a second school with a religious orientation.

The leadership of KIRO drew corresponding conclusions from this situation — the second Jewish school was intended to be "less religious" than originally planned. Judging by a publication in April 1992 in the newspaper "Istoki," which represented the Chisinau Synagogue and KIRO, the issue of opening a Jewish school with a religious orientation was resolved in the spring of that year. In the publication dedicated to the celebration of Lag BaOmer, it was stated that Ilya Iosifovich Vaiselbuch, introduced as the first director of the opening "Chabad-Lubavitch School... where alongside subjects under the state curriculum, Hebrew, Judaism, and... the history of the Jewish people will be studied," addressed the participants of the parade[47].

In the same newspaper, in September 1992, in an article dedicated to the Day of Knowledge and the opening of Jewish Secondary School No. 15 "Chabad Lubavitch," it was clarified: "...it is in vain that children and parents are frightened by the 'excessive' religiosity [of the school]... the new educational institution is built on one of the traditional models of Israeli education. The curricula are closely aligned. Therefore, a child starting studies here, in the event of family repatriation, will easily adapt to unfamiliar conditions. They will integrate faster than their 'general education' peers in the 'Promised Land'"[48].

However, the emergence of two schools — secular and religious — did not resolve the differences between the two most influential Jewish organizations in Moldova — KIRO and the Chisinau JCS. On the contrary, the pendulum of confrontation swung further.

On October 11, 1992, during the founding conference of the Chisinau JCS, its chairman, L. Baltsan, noted in his report that "...the Jewish Secondary School No. 22, established with our participation, is in its second year of operation. ...Thanks to the bridges we have built, the Ministry of Education of Israel has taken the school under its patronage"[49].

At the same time, in his speech to the leadership and members of the Chisinau JCS, not a single word was mentioned about the second Jewish school with a religious orientation opened in Chisinau in August 1992.

In turn, the opening of Jewish Secondary School No. 15 was no less important an event in the Jewish revival in Moldova than the opening of School No. 22 a year earlier. To make this happen, a great deal of joint effort had been made since 1989 by both the secular and religious segments of the Jewish community, operating initially within the framework of the Chisinau and Republican JCS.

The omission of such a significant fact in the report of the chairman of the Chisinau JCS, L. Baltsan, is understandable. By the time of the conference, tensions between KIRO and the Chisinau JCS had brought the situation to a split in the Jewish movement. KIRO had succeeded in establishing direct cooperation with the central authorities of the Republic of Moldova, and its leaders no longer required the mediation of the Chisinau JCS or the JCS of the Republic of Moldova[50].

At that time, the Chisinau Jewish Religious Society (KIRO) changed its name — henceforth it was the Chisinau Jewish Community, still headed by Iakov Vaiselbuch. On September 26, 1992, an announcement about the creation of the All-Moldovan Jewish Culture Society, also chaired by Vaiselbuch, was published in "Nezavisimaya Moldova"[51].

A few days later, an official editorial statement was published in the JCS newspaper "Our Voice," pointing out that "the similarity of the names of the JCS of the Republic of Moldova and the so-called All-Moldovan Jewish Culture Society cannot but suggest the imposture of its... founders and a desire to split the unified Jewish movement in the republic"[52].

On October 11, 1992, the aforementioned founding conference of the Chisinau JCS took place, with the primary goal of creating a new organization — the Open Jewish Federation of the City of Chisinau. The chairman of the capital's JCS, L. Baltsan, motivated this by the inefficiency of the JCS of the Republic of Moldova[53].

Resolving the contradictions that had accumulated between the Jewish organizations, including the "school issue," required the intervention of a third party, represented by emissaries of Israeli organizations. According to memoirs of eyewitnesses, this primarily involved "Nativ," the Consulate of Israel in the Republic of Moldova, and others.

Conclusion

Despite differences regarding the "school problem," this history clearly demonstrated the realities of the very community life (with all its advantages and disadvantages) that Jewish secular and religious leaders sought to recreate.

On the other hand, Jewish children and parents gained a choice between different types of Jewish education. Unlike the Jews, other national minorities in the republic were deprived of such a choice (between secular and religious school education).

The established Jewish schools allowed children not only from Chisinau but also from other regions, including the Transnistrian conflict zone, to obtain an education with a national component.

During the difficult 1990s for post-Soviet Moldova, the Jewish school was also entrusted with a humanitarian mission. For many families, enrolling a child in a Jewish school was literally a salvation. It was here that Jewish children had the opportunity to receive meals and various forms of assistance (money, clothing, food packages, etc.), which helped not only them but also their parents to survive in those challenging times.

Over time, graduates of Jewish schools became an important source of personnel for numerous local and foreign Jewish organizations in the Republic of Moldova.

Since their founding, Chisinau Jewish schools/lyceums, due to state-of-the-art technical equipment and the implementation of advanced educational technologies, have been considered among the most prestigious in Moldova.

A major advantage in the functioning of both Jewish schools was that potential repatriates could prepare their children for the lifestyle (secular or religious) they intended to lead in Israel.

The core meaning of Jewish education is clearly reflected in the goals of the Israeli "Heftziba" program — to create conditions under which Jewish children and their families can undergo a "dual process of return: return to Jewish identity... and return to their Homeland"[54].

Over time, the struggle between KIRO and the Chisinau JCS over the future of Jewish school education transformed into competition between the two schools, this time in the area of educational quality and student achievements. Despite the fact that in the 2000s both Jewish schools became secular lyceums and joined the ORT network, the tacit competition between them has persisted to this day, as a kind of "echo" of the events of 30 years ago.

1 |  Klimina S., "The Formation of Jewish Identity in Lyceums with an Ethno-cultural Jewish Component of Education in the Republic of Moldova (Using the Example of Chisinau Lyceums)," Promoting National Values through Language, Literature, and History. Chişinău, 2012, p. 143

2 |  ORT. https://eleven.co.il/jews-of-russia/movements-parties/13095/; The 140th Anniversary of ORT! https://lyceum.ort.md/140-lietiie-orta/

3 |  Theoretical Lyceum named after Rambam ORT. https://rambam.md

4 |  Kopansky Ia., "The Revival of Jewish National Culture — A Factor in the Democratization of the Spiritual Life of Moldova," Jews in the Spiritual Life of Moldova, Chisinau, 1997, p. 12

5 |  The Government Decision on the establishment of the Department, which defined its tasks and staff, was signed on April 25, 1991. http://www.bri.gov.md/index.php?pag=sec&id=92&l=ru; Kopansky Ia., "The Revival of Jewish National Culture — A Factor in the Democratization of the Spiritual Life of Moldova," Jews in the Spiritual Life of Moldova. Chisinau, 1997, p. 16

6 |  Damian V., "Three Decades of Academic Jewish Studies in the Republic of Moldova," EAJC Yearbook. Jews of Europe and Asia: State, Heritage, and Prospects / Collection of Scientific and Publicistic Articles. Vol. 2 (2019-2020/5780), Israel, 2020, pp. 353-354 https://institute.eajc.org/yearbook-5780/#pdf

7 |  Ion Borșevici (1929-2011) — 1975-1992 — Rector of the Ion Creangă Chisinau State Pedagogical Institute, 1988-1989 — Chairman of the parliamentary commission on the drafting of the Law on Languages, which included a chapter on Yiddish and Hebrew, 1990-1993 — Advisor to the first President of the Republic of Moldova, M. Snegur, 1990-1994 — Member of Parliament, as well as Chief of Staff to the President, 1993-1994 — Ambassador of the Republic of Moldova in Kyiv. He was the head of the first delegation that established diplomatic relations between Moldova and the State of Israel. ("The famous Moldovan scientist and ex-deputy Ion Borșevici passed away" https://www.kp.md/online/news/909637/; Berezovskaya O., Zapadinsky R.: "This is a history that had a beginning" https://kommersantinfo.com/3166/robert-zapadinskij-eto-istoriya-u-kotoroj-bylo-nachalo.html; "Our Voice", No. 1 (55), January 2020, pp. 6-7

8 |  Khazin M., "Memories of Reb Zalman," newspaper "Our Voice" (hereinafter "OV"), No. 9 (44), June 2019, pp. 5-6; Hirschfeld S., "BMB." A ticket to Zion. Notes on Jewish History. Network portal. May 2011. https://berkovich-zametki.com/2011/Zametki/Nomer5/Hirshfeld1.php; "OV", No. 5 (25), March 1991, p. 1; "Meeting with the President," "OV", No. 21 (41), November 1991, pp. 1-2

9 |  Karpenko I., "The Rabbi from Chabad-Lubavitch Street," literary-publicistic magazine "L'Chaim". October, 2005 (Elul 5765), No. 10 (162) https://lechaim.ru/ARHIV/162/VZR/k01.htm.

10 |  Khazin M., "Memories of Reb Zalman," newspaper "Our Voice", No. 9 (44), June 2019, pp. 5-6

11 |  Newspaper "Our Voice" (hereinafter OV) No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 1

12 |  "Culture News," "OV", No. 5 (25), March 1-15, 1991, p. 1

13 |  "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 1

14 |  "OV", No. 1 (21), January 1-15, 1991, p. 4

15 |  "Hello, Mr. Zvi...," "OV", No. 6 (26), March 16-31, 1991, p. 2

16 |  "OV", No. 5 (25), March 1-15, 1991, p. 3

17 |  "The Lubavitcher Rebbe is implementing a program to assist Jewish children, primarily those affected by the Chernobyl disaster," "OV", No. 5 (25), March 1-15, 1991, p. 1

18 |  "There is no reason for concern," "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 6

19 |  "We are open for contacts," "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 1

20 |  "Dear Jewish children!," "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 1

21 |  "For the first time!," "OV", No. 10 (30), 1991, p. 5. "OV", No. 16 (36), August 1991, p. 1

22 |  "OV", No. 11 (31), 1991, p. 2

23 |  "OV", No. 9 (29), May 1991, p. 1

24 |  "OV", No. 9 (29), May 1991, p. 1

25 |  "OV", No. 9 (29), May 1991, p. 5.

26 |  "OV", No. 10 (30), May 1991, p. 1

27 |  The historical name of this building is the Glaziers' Synagogue (Gleizer Shil)

28 |  "Dear Jewish parents!," "OV", No. 10 (30), May 1991, p. 1

29 |  Klimina S., "The Formation of Jewish Identity in Lyceums with an Ethno-cultural Jewish Component of Education in the Republic of Moldova (Using the Example of Chisinau Lyceums)," Promoting National Values through Language, Literature, and History. Chişinău, 2012, p. 142

30 |  Tviatkov N., Civil Society of the Republic of Moldova: Social and Political Aspects of Development. Chisinau, 2017, pp. 21-22

31 |  During that period in Moldova: "Romania becomes a symbol of freedom, democracy...". (Tviatkov N., Civil Society of the Republic of Moldova, p. 22)

32 |  Cited in: Rosen M., "Dangers, Ordeals, Miracles." Translated from Romanian and annotated by A. Brodsky. Notes on Jewish History, No. 8(167), August 2013 https://www.berkovich-zametki.com/2013/Zametki/Nomer8/Rozen1.php.

33 |  "We are open for contacts," "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 1

34 |  Newspaper "OV", No. 14-15 (34-35), 1991, p. 1

35 |  Ibid., p. 1

36 |  Ibid., p. 1

37 |  "On Measures to Ensure the Development of Jewish National Culture and Satisfy the Social Needs of the Jewish Population of the Republic of Moldova." President of the Republic of Moldova. Decree No. 161 of 12.08.1991. Published: 30.12.1991 in Monitorul Oficial No. 11-12, Article No. 130. https://www.legis.md/cautare/getResults?doc_id=56113&lang=ru. This law was also published in the newspaper "OV", No. 14-15 (34-35), 1991, p. 1

38 |  "Chronicle of the JCS," "OV", No. 16 (36), August 1991, p. 3

39 |  "Creation-Spiritualization," "OV", No. 8 (28), April 1991, p. 3

40 |  "To Be a Religious Center," "OV", No. 16 (36), August, 1991, p. 1

41 |  Shevelev D. "The Experience of Jewish National Autonomy in Modern Moldova." EAJC Yearbook "Jews of Europe and Asia: State, Heritage, and Prospects". Volume 1 (2018-2019/5779). Israel, 2019, p. 89

42 |  "Nativ." Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia //eleven.co.il/state-of-israel/government-system/12918

43 |  "Dotting the i's," "OV", No. 17 (37), September 1991, p. 7

44 |  Klimina S., "The Formation of Jewish Identity in Lyceums with an Ethno-cultural Jewish Component of Education in the Republic of Moldova," p. 143

45 |  "How We Want to See the Jewish School," "OV", No. 16 (36), August 1991, p. 4

46 |  The "Heftziba" Program https://cms.education.gov.il/educationcms/units/heftzibarusit/odot/reka.htm

47 |  "Lag BaOmer: Flare Up with Bonfires!," Istoki. Jewish newspaper Chabad-Lubavitch. No. 11, June, (Tammuz 5753) 1992, p. 2

48 |  "And It Was Morning, and the Shofar Sounded...,," Istoki. Jewish newspaper Chabad-Lubavitch. No. 1 (14), September (Tishrei 5753) 1992, p. 2

49 |  "We are ready to cooperate with anyone who wants to work...," "OV", No. 20 (64), October 1992, p. 3

50 |  "Latest News." Istoki. Jewish newspaper Chabad-Lubavitch. No. 1 (14), September (Tishrei 5753), 1992, p. 2

51 |  Statement of the Editorial Board of the newspaper "Our Voice," "OV", No. 19 (63), October 1992, p. 6. "What's the News?," Istoki. Jewish newspaper Chabad-Lubavitch. No. 2 (15), October (Cheshvan 5753), 1992, p. 7

52 |  Statement of the Editorial Board of the newspaper "Our Voice," "OV", No. 19 (63), October 1992, p. 6

53 |  "We are ready to cooperate with anyone who wants to work...," "OV", No. 20 (64), October 1992, p. 3

54 |  The "Heftziba" Program https://cms.education.gov.il/educationcms/units/heftzibarusit/odot/reka.htm