Demographic Aspects

It is appropriate to begin describing the current state of the Jewish community of Belarus with an assessment of its size. The last census was conducted in October 2019, but data on the ethnic composition of the population has not yet been released.

According to the 2009 census, 13,000 Jews lived in the country, representing 0.14% of the 9.5 million population of Belarus. (According to the 1999 census, Jews accounted for 0.28% — less than 28,000 people out of 10 million citizens). The decline in the size of the Jewish community is associated with natural decline and emigration. In 2018, community organizations in Belarus reported between 9,000 and 15,000 Jews living in the country (other figures also exist, ranging from 30,000 to 40,000). Israeli demographers (Sergio Della Pergola, Mark Tolts) estimate the "core" ethnic Jewish population of Belarus at 13,000, and the "enlarged Jewish population," which includes all individuals meeting the criteria of the Israeli Law of Return, at 33,000[1]. The former represents a "minimalist" approach that records individuals of homogeneous Jewish and mixed ancestry who possess a stable Jewish identity. The latter takes into account other segments of the Jewish community included in the so-called "enlarged Jewish population." Enlarged Jewish population is a term introduced by a group of American scholars and adapted to post-Soviet realities by Ye. Andreev, A. Sinelnikov, and M. Tolts. In addition to ethnic Jews, this category includes individuals of Jewish and mixed ancestry who identified themselves as non-Jews in the census, as well as non-Jewish members of Jewish households[2].

Ethnic Composition of the Population of the Republic of Belarus (Persons) according to the Statistical Committee[3]

According to the National Statistical Committee (NSC) of the Republic of Belarus, representatives of about 140 nationalities and ethnic groups resided in the country at the time of the census. The top ten most numerous, besides Belarusians, Russians (8%), Poles (3%), and Ukrainians (2%), included Jews, Armenians, Tatars, Roma, Azerbaijanis, and Lithuanians. According to the census, the numbers of the most populous ethnic groups, as well as the total population of the country, decreased compared to 1999. The most significant decrease occurred among Jews (by 2.2 times), Ukrainians and Russians (by one-third in both cases), and Roma (by 29%). According to NSC experts, this is due to both natural population decline and migratory outflow. It was also noted that during the census, answers to the question about nationality were recorded based on the respondents' statements, and the nationality of children was determined by their parents. All names of nationalities and ethnographic groups, including commonly accepted names and self-appellations, were entered into the census form[4].

Organizational Forms

As the purpose of this article is not to characterize the ethnic composition of Belarus, let us proceed to analyze the activities of the Jewish community—the more or less organized segment of society interested in preserving and transmitting Jewish religious, cultural values, and traditions. In the Belarusian context, this refers to religious communities and national-cultural associations. The most reliable data appears to be that of the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities, the body responsible for state administration in the ethno-confessional sphere. The list of national-cultural public associations registered in the Republic of Belarus (as of January 1, 2019) includes 43 Jewish organizations, located as follows:

Brest Region — 8

Vitebsk Region — 8

Gomel Region — 4

Grodno Region — 4

Minsk Region — 4

Mogilev Region — 4

City of Minsk — 11.

It should be noted that in total, 193 associations representing 25 nationalities are tracked[5].

State support for the statutory activities of national-cultural associations is provided under the Program for the Development of the Confessional Sphere, National Relations, and Cooperation with Compatriots Abroad, approved every five years.

For the purpose of dialogue and sharing experiences, an Advisory Interethnic Council was established under the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities, which includes the Chairman of the Union of Belarusian Jewish Public Associations and Communities (currently V. Chernitsky)[6].

Examples of Jewish national-cultural associations include organizations registered by the Main Directorate of Justice of the Minsk City Executive Committee (as of February 6, 2019): Minsk Charitable Public Association "Hilf" (111 members), Minsk Public Association of Jewish Culture named after Izy Kharik (78 members), Public Association "Jewish Student Cultural Center 'Hillel'" (750 members), Youth Public Association "Jewish Community 'Hashomer Hatzair'" (16 members), Youth Public Association "Cultural Initiative 'NESHER'" (11 members), and Public Association "Minsk Jewish Community" (10 members)[7].

The largest national-cultural association is the Union of Belarusian Jewish Public Associations and Communities (UBJPAC), which comprises 45 Jewish organizations in 20 cities across Belarus, including 7 national structures. UBJPAC publishes the newspaper "Aviv" and the magazine "Mishpoha" (which features prose, poetry, publicist writing, historical essays, and articles on philosophy, sociology, and demography)[8].

Regarding religious communities, 25 religious confessions and movements are registered in the Republic of Belarus. The total number of religious organizations has reached 3,550 (including 175 religious structures of national significance such as religious unions, monasteries, missions, brotherhoods, sisterhoods, and theological schools, along with 3,375 religious communities). Three Jewish religious unions encompass 53 religious communities that have nine places of worship at their disposal. The faithful belong to three branches: Orthodox, Hasidic (Chabad), and Progressive.

Religious Organizations Registered by the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities (as of January 1, 2019)[9]

Religious Communities in the Republic of Belarus (as of January 1, 2019)[12]

Information on Places of Worship of Religious Communities in the Republic of Belarus (as of January 1, 2019)[13]

Religious Unions:

The Jewish Religious Union (JRU) in the Republic of Belarus is one of the oldest Jewish unions in modern Belarus. It was established over 15 years ago and is aligned with Orthodox Judaism. The union owns a synagogue on Daumana Street in Minsk. The Chairman of the JRU is G. L. Khaitovich. The union used to publish the newspaper "Berega" (the last issue was published in January 2018)[14].

Chabad or Lubavitcher Hasidism. The center of this union is the synagogue on Kropotkina Street in Minsk. This is the only synagogue in the capital to occupy its original building (the Central Minsk Synagogue on Kropotkina was built in 1910). According to the leadership, about 500 people gather at the synagogue during holidays, and approximately one thousand Minsk Jews are associated with it in one way or another. The synagogue also hosts a children's center and a private school for Halakhic Jewish children[15].

The Religious Union of Communities of Progressive Judaism (RUCPJ) in the Republic of Belarus was established with the support of the World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ) in 1993. Since then, the number of its member communities has grown from 6 to 11, and the number of congregants has increased from 500 to 3,000. These communities operate in nine cities across Belarus. A synagogue, the "Netzer" reform youth movement club, a religious school, and a center for advanced Jewish studies are located on Shornaya Street in Minsk. There are three Sunday schools—in Minsk, Babruysk, and Grodno—each serving approximately 70 students. Three kindergartens operate on a daily basis in Vitebsk, Mogilev, and Minsk, while Gomel has a Jewish kindergarten and school called "Atikva"[16].

On the initiative of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities, an Advisory Interconfessional Council was established. Representatives of republican religious unions of Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, Old Believer, and Protestant confessions participate in its meetings.

In 2019, the Council's meetings addressed topics such as the role of religious organizations in supporting families, maternal and child welfare, the involvement of religious organizations in countering the spread of violence and extremism, the role of religious organizations in the patriotic education of youth, and other matters[17]

Community Activities

The main directions of activity for Jewish organizations and communities are:

• cultural and national revival and consolidation of Jews;

• popularization of Jewish traditions and culture among the general public;

• preservation of the memory of the Holocaust;

• charity.

Recently, Belarus has hosted a series of festivals popularizing Jewish music, literature, cuisine, etc., providing opportunities for participants to immerse themselves in the world of Jewish culture and traditions. Prominent among these are the annual Jewish Culture Day in the Upper Town of Minsk, the Festival of National Cultures, and the Grand Hanukkah Concert. These events have contributed to a certain trendiness of Jewish culture, leading to the opening of Jewish restaurants and similar establishments.

On May 3-5, 2019, Minsk welcomed over 600 participants to the Limmud International Jewish Educational Conference. The intensive three-day program featured more than 150 lectures, workshops, and masterclasses, alongside concerts, excursions, exhibitions, and a dedicated children's program. This was the fourth time the conference was held in Minsk, and its traditional component included events dedicated to prominent Jews of Belarusian origin (exhibitions, unveiling of memorial plaques, etc.)[18].

On November 7-8, 2019, Minsk hosted the Litvak Klezmer Fest, a major festival of Jewish folk music organized by Dmitry Slepovich, a musician and researcher of Jewish music originally from Belarus and currently residing in the USA[19].

On November 17, 2019, the tenth Jewish Street of Knowledge took place, spanning two cities—Minsk and Gomel. In the same month, Minsk hosted the first Hebrew Festival, organized by the Nativ Israeli Cultural Center.

In December 2019, the Jewish Agency in Belarus initiated the "Bridges of Israel" forum, which featured lectures by Ya. Faitelson and A. Demyanov on the Hebrew language and the Holocaust in Mozyr, Minsk, and Gomel. During the Hanukkah celebrations in Minsk, the Hanukice festival was held on an open-air platform for the first time. The program featured tastings of traditional dishes, a market, Jewish dancing, live music, masterclasses, a themed photo zone, painting of a wooden menorah, and making donut crowns[20].

Educational projects are highly active, offering a wide spectrum of topics ranging from Jewish holidays to the history of Jewish shtetls, and from the Yiddish phenomenon to Jewish cuisine. These include the "Lekach" project for elderly individuals in the "Beis Yisroel" Jewish religious community of Minsk, and a Jewish culture club operating this year in collaboration with the Museum of the History and Culture of Jews in Belarus[21] and the Leonid Levin Historical Workshop, among others.

Mention should also be made of various amateur and professional creative groups, such as the "Menorah" theater of the Vitebsk City Jewish Community, the Mogilev Jewish Theater "Shalom," the "Shekel" club, and others.

Belarusian creative groups are increasingly incorporating Jewish heritage into their repertoires. In June 2019, as part of the "Speuny Skhod" project, the Zingeray Jewish song and dance festival was held at the Marc Chagall Museum in Vitebsk. In August of the same year, more than 150 people gathered at the Gomel branch of the Vetka Museum of Old Belief and Belarusian Traditions to perform songs in Yiddish, Hebrew, and Belarusian[22]. Roman Yarosh, a musician of the Jewish music ensemble "Bareznburger Kapelye," noted that "...the group came to Jewish folk dances through Belarusian dances. We search archives for Jewish dance music and collect it ourselves during ethnographic expeditions. And now, Belarusian musicians are playing at a Jewish party"[23].

The Jewish theme is highly visible in modern Belarusian literature. Recently, a "Jewish" issue of the magazine "Prajdzisviet" was published, in which a new generation of Belarusian translators presented Jewish works translated from Yiddish, Hebrew, English, and Italian (Chaim Nachman Bialik, Moyshe Kulbak, Israel Joshua Singer, Avrom Reyzen, and others)[24]. On December 20, 2019, a presentation was held for the Belarusian translation of Moyshe Kulbak's mystery novel "The Messiah of the House of Ephraim" (1924), translated by historian, journalist, and translator S. Shupa[25].

The visa waiver for Israeli citizens at the end of 2015 and the decree "On Establishing a Visa-Free Entry and Exit Procedure for Foreign Citizens" signed on July 24, 2018, stimulated the growth of tourist flows. Belarusian guides report that over the past two and a half years, there has been a noticeable increase in Jewish tourists from Israel, the USA, Lithuania, Poland, the UK, Belgium, Switzerland, Greece, and Italy. Some tourism professionals estimated the increase in the flow to be 1.5 times, while others reported a threefold increase. Based on the purpose of their visit, Jewish visitors to Belarus can be divided into three groups: heritage tourism, pilgrimage, and leisure. Individual itineraries dominate the tourist flow, with Khatyn, Radun, Valozhyn, and Mir being the most frequently visited locations[26].

The tourism boom stimulated interest in the study of shtetls and the restoration of Jewish heritage sites. Some agritourism farm owners began adding Jewish dishes to their menus and organizing themed programs.

Within the framework of cross-border cooperation between Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine, a shtetl route was developed[27], encompassing 20 iconic locations. Most of these are located in the Grodno and partially Brest regions, including Dzyatlava, Zhaludok, Iwye, Kobryn, Lunna, Mir, Navahrudak, Indura (a Hasidic center), Radun (the burial site of Rabbi Chofetz Chaim), Pruzhany, Slonim, and others. The new tourism product was developed with the involvement of scholars from Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno and the Navahrudak Historical and Regional Studies Museum. The project featured several expeditions to former shtetls, the publication of reference books, the training of 35 tour guides, and the creation of 15 virtual 3D models of historical towns by specialists[28].

The tourism boom in Radun (a small settlement in the Voronovo District), which attracts Jewish pilgrims from Israel, Europe, and America, caught the attention of investors. Recently, a major Israeli company undertook a project to build a hotel, a restaurant, a ritual bath (mikveh), and a synagogue there.

As noted by Rabbi Shneur Deutch, the Chabad emissary to Belarus, the growing flow of Western Jews visiting Jewish heritage sites strengthens the local community by putting Belarus back on the Jewish map of the world.

The preservation of the memory of the Holocaust remains highly relevant. This involves establishing the names of the victims, erecting monuments and memorial plaques at mass extermination sites, and organizing seminars and conferences on the history of the Holocaust.

A "Memorial Wall" dedicated to Europe's most successful escape from a ghetto was unveiled in Navahrudak in 2019. The museum is located near Mindaugas Hill, on the site of the former labor camp barracks. The dedication of the memorial was timed to coincide with the 75th anniversary of the liberation of Navahrudak from Nazi occupation.

In accordance with the program of the Days of Remembrance dedicated to the 75th anniversary of the destruction of the Minsk Ghetto, the Ministry of Information conducted a media competition for the best coverage of the Holocaust. A Holocaust-themed film week was held at the Central Cinema in Minsk, and a thematic exhibition of paintings and drawings opened at the National Art Museum. The National Historical Museum, in cooperation with the Israeli Cultural Center, hosted an exhibition of the prominent artist Meer Axelrod[29]. In November 2018, a temporary exhibition titled "In Memory of the Minsk Ghetto" opened at the Belarusian State Museum of the History of the Great Patriotic War. The Minsk City Executive Committee placed information posters dedicated to the Days of Remembrance in subway cars and at public transport stops. As part of these memorial events, schools held courage lessons, meetings with survivors, relatives, and close friends of eyewitnesses to the tragic events, and thematic photo exhibitions. On October 22, 2018, a memorial rally was held at the "Yama" (The Pit) memorial complex to honor the victims of the Minsk Ghetto and the Holocaust in Belarus, followed by a memorial evening at the State Philharmonic. The following day, the International Forum "75 Years of the Tragedy and Heroism of the Minsk Ghetto: Challenges and Prospects for Holocaust Remembrance in Belarus" took place, attended by leaders of international Jewish organizations and representatives from the State of Israel, European nations, and the USA[30].

In 2019, nine memorials were unveiled as part of a project to commemorate the mass extermination sites of Belarusian Jews during the Holocaust. In Ivatsevichy (Brest Region), a memorial sign was erected at the site where 600 Jews were killed in 1942. In the village of Byten (Ivatsevichy District, Brest Region), a plaque was installed to commemorate 2,000 Jews killed there in 1941–1942. In Ushachy (Vitebsk Region), a memorial was opened at the execution site of 925 Jews of the town in 1942. In the village of Belaye (Ushachy District, Vitebsk Region), a memorial sign was installed at the extermination site of 37 Jews in 1942[31]. Similar signs were also installed in Loyew (Gomel Region), Vidzy (Braslav District, Vitebsk Region), Sirotsina (Shumilina District, Vitebsk Region), and Zhytkavichy (Gomel Region)[32].

On January 26, 2020, the "Yellow Stars" classical music concert dedicated to International Holocaust Remembrance Day was held in the Grand Hall of the Belarusian State Philharmonic. This marked the third time such a concert was organized in Minsk to commemorate this tragic date.

In 2015, the first phase of the "Trostenets" memorial complex was opened on the grounds of the former death camp of the same name[33]. At that time, President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko proposed that nations whose citizens perished in the concentration camp near Minsk erect monuments along the central alley of the complex. Austria was the first to respond to this initiative. The second phase of the memorial was opened in 2019.

The Jewish community pays special attention to charitable activities. Twelve regional "Hesed" charitable organizations provide social services to retirees, individuals with disabilities, and single-parent or low-income families. However, up to half of the foreign aid sent to Belarus by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee ("Joint") for these programs is redirected to the state budget in the form of taxes. Although the Ministry of Taxes and Duties recently exempted individuals with disabilities and retirees from income tax on charitable care services provided to them, the elimination of a single fee did not resolve the broader issue. Hundreds of elderly and ill Belarusian Jews in need of care pay income tax on assistance received in kind, such as medicines, diapers, wheelchairs, food packages, and essential household appliances. Since 2016, following the entry into force of Presidential Decree No. 5 "On Foreign Gratuitous Aid," tax revenues to the state treasury from this type of assistance have amounted to tens of thousands of dollars, representing up to 50% of the monthly transfers sent by the "Joint"[34].

Antisemitism in Belarus

The state policy of the country regarding interethnic relations and the protection of national minority rights is based on the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, the National Security Concept, more than 30 international treaties, the Law "On National Minorities in the Republic of Belarus," and specific articles in more than 20 different laws. These legislative acts are designed to protect against any actions aimed at discrimination based on nationality, the creation of obstacles to the realization of rights by national minorities, or the incitement of interethnic hostility[35].

In 2016, the Pew Research Center (USA) conducted a survey in 18 countries, asking respondents whether they would accept Jews as fellow citizens in their country. In Serbia and Bulgaria, 7% of citizens opposed this, while in Latvia, 9% did. In Belarus, according to the Pew Research Center, 13% of respondents indicated that Jews were undesirable, compared to 14% in Russia and 18% in Poland. The survey recorded the highest levels of antisemitism in Lithuania (23%) and Romania (22%)[36].

According to ADL (Anti-Defamation League) surveys conducted in 2014–2015, the percentage of individuals harboring antisemitic attitudes (based on ADL methodology) was 38% in Belarus, 23% in Russia, and 32% in Ukraine[37].

The results of a 2018 survey of Jewish community leaders conducted by the International Center for Community Development showed that Jews in Eastern Europe feel safer than their counterparts in the western part of the continent (96% versus 78%). It is worth noting that European Jewish leaders surveyed in 2018 ranked antisemitism only sixth on the scale of threats, with 56% of respondents mentioning it. By comparison, in 2008, only 23% identified it as a threat[38].

Researchers and community leaders[39] point out that there is no state-level antisemitism in Belarus. Antisemitic incidents are primarily verbal, and acts of vandalism are relatively rare. For instance, in 2013, two acts of vandalism were recorded: in Rechytsa, gravestones at a Jewish cemetery were destroyed, and in Babruysk, the walls of a synagogue were defaced with offensive graffiti, windows were broken, and office equipment was stolen from the building. In 2016, a group of young people splashed black paint on a memorial stone for Holocaust victims at the entrance to the former Mogilev Ghetto. The court found the defendants guilty of malicious hooliganism.

Jewish organizations combat antisemitism by filing complaints with authorities, appealing to international institutions, and initiating lawsuits. The latter is considered the most effective method. In April 2008, a vandal who desecrated Jewish graves in Barysaw in July 2007 was convicted. Unfortunately, law enforcement agencies are not always successful in identifying vandals and bringing them to justice[40]. On December 19, 2008, thirteen publications distributed by the "Orthodox Book" store chain were ruled extremist by the Savetski District Court of Minsk for inciting ethnic and religious hatred and calling for violence.

Occasional scandals continue to occur, raising questions about the tolerance of Belarusian society.

In 2017, the Tsentralny District Court of Gomel dismissed a lawsuit filed by Ya. Gutman, President of the World Association of Belarusian Jews (USA), against the Gomel City Executive Committee. The lawsuit sought to overturn the authorities' decision to construct residential buildings on a former Jewish cemetery. The administration was accused of discrimination based on nationality, with claims that Christian shrines are treated with greater respect. Following demands from the local Jewish community, historians, and the media, the construction was suspended, and an agreement was subsequently reached to rebury the remains[41]. In February 2019, during construction work on the territory of the former Jewish Ghetto in Brest, the remains of 730 Jews were discovered. The World Jewish Congress (WJC) urged the Government of Belarus to halt the construction, stating: "The construction project under implementation in Brest insults the memory of the Jewish residents of the city who were murdered in cold blood on this very spot"[42].

A highly problematic situation surrounds the "Poyedem Poyedim" (Let's Go Eat) restaurant and entertainment complex, built in close proximity to the Kurapaty forest, where thousands of victims of the Stalinist regime were executed in the 1930s. The conflict is further complicated by the fact that some of the complex's owners are Jewish. Prolonged and widespread protests against these Jewish business owners have triggered antisemitic rhetoric, which Russian and pro-Russian nationalists have exploited to support claims of Belarusian racism.

Another scandal involves the activities of the "Zhydovachka" band[43], which operates within the Historical Dance Club of the Barysaw District Center for Children and Youth Creativity. The band was created to "research and promote the musical and dance heritage of Belarusian shtetls (Belarusian, Polish, and Jewish dances, as well as popular melodies of the interwar period)." The name of the group did not appeal to everyone, sparking a wave of public debate regarding the appropriateness of the name "Zhydovachka" (a traditional, but now sensitive term for a Jewish girl). The Union of Belarusian Jewish Public Associations and Communities sent an appeal to the Presidential Administration, accusing the band's leadership of antisemitism.

Nevertheless, no incidents of antisemitic violence have been recorded in Belarus in recent years. This reflects local realities in which Belarusian Jews reside in a highly stable and secure, albeit politically restrictive, environment. Furthermore, there are no visible trends of Holocaust revisionism or the glorification of pro-Nazi nationalists in Belarus. However, critics of the Lukashenko regime argue that the suppression of civil liberties and human rights inevitably has a negative impact on local Jews.

Conclusion

A defining feature of Jewish life in Belarus is noteworthy: despite a shrinking Jewish population, community activity is intensifying. This activity is shifting from educational initiatives toward charity, as well as cultural and educational projects that popularize Jewish heritage and integrate it into the country's cultural life. In the early 1990s, Jewish Sunday schools and ulpans operated in more than 15 Belarusian cities, serving several thousand students. In September 1992, the first Jewish secondary school, the Janusz Korczak Republican Lyceum, opened in Minsk. In February 1995, the Jewish University in Minsk was established, which was later used to form the Marc Chagall International Institute in January 1999. In 1996, the Jewish University of Culture (rector M. Rivkin) welcomed its first students. Additionally, the College of Jewish Knowledge opened in Minsk under the auspices of the JRU[44].

At this stage, the popularization of Jewish heritage is contributing to the creation of positive myths and new branding. Despite the complex and multifaceted history of Belarusian Jews, emphasis is placed on the idealization of shtetl life and the tragedy of the Holocaust. Popular melodies like "7:40" are widely publicized, Israeli cuisine is highly successful at Litvak festivals, and staged and mass choreography is frequently presented as authentic folklore. These trends are driven by the sharp decline in the number of individuals possessing a Jewish identity due to World War II, Soviet domestic policies, and mass emigration. It is hoped that, over time, negative phenomena will gradually subside, aided by the efforts of the Jewish community of Belarus.

Dr. Elena Gross is a Senior Researcher at the Center for World History and International Relations of the Institute of History of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, and a Senior Lecturer at the Department of International Relations of the Belarusian State University.

[1] D. Shevelev, "Jews of Belarus: A General Overview," Euro-Asian Jewish (EAJ) Policy Papers, No 4 (Dec 2018), https://institute.eajc.org/eajpp-4

[2] V. Khanin, "Sociological and Political Science Aspects of the Controversy on Jewish Demography in Post-Soviet Eurasia," Jews of Europe and Asia: State, Heritage, and Prospects. EAJC Yearbook, Vol. 1 (2018–2019), pp. 43-44

[3] 2009 Population Census. Ethnic Composition of the Population of the Republic of Belarus. Vol. 3. National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus. Minsk, 2011, p. 433

[4] Census Results: Ethnic Composition of the Residents of Belarus. BelaPAN https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2010/11/02/ic_media_infografic_116_3990

Census Results: Ethnic Composition of the Residents of Belarus. BelaPAN https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2010/11/02/ic_media_infografic_116_3990

[5] Data from the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities https://belarus21.by/Articles/nac_cult_ob.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Main Directorate of Ideological Work and Youth Affairs of the Minsk City Executive Committee https://minsk.gov.by/ru/org/8751/attach/63624c4.

[8] See Union of Belarusian Jewish Public Associations and Communities http://евреи.бел.

[9] Data from the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities https://belarus21.by/Articles/religioznye-organizacii-zaregistrirovannye-upolnomochennym-po-delam-religij-i-nacionalnostej-na-1-yanvarya-2019-g.

[10] The Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities does not separate Orthodox Judaism and the Chabad movement into distinct groups.

The Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities does not separate Orthodox Judaism and the Chabad movement into distinct groups.

[11] It remains unclear what the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities refers to by this.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Ibid. It should be noted that this information reflects only the number of structures registered as places of worship in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Belarus. Data regarding premises provided to religious organizations for religious rites was not available to the author at the time of the study.

[14] See Jewish Religious Union in the Republic of Belarus https://www.facebook.com/irovrb/.

[15] See Chabad Minsk https://www.jewishminsk.com/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/1018850/jewish/-.htm.

[16] See Religious Union of Communities of Progressive Judaism http://orasimcha.org/about.html.

[17] Data from the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities https://belarus21.by/Articles/kon_kos_pol.

[18] Limmud Belarus https://limmud.by/category/limud-belarus-2019

[19] See http://klezmerfest.by

[20] Independent Israeli Website https://belisrael.info/?cat=1489

[21] The Museum of the History and Culture of Jews in Belarus (established in 2002) runs over 15 research, educational, and outreach programs covering various aspects of the history and culture of Belarusian Jews from the 18th century to the present. Participants include members of the country's Jewish community, school and university students, and individuals of Belarusian origin living in CIS countries, Israel, the USA, and Germany.

[22] Independent Israeli Website https://belisrael.info/?p=20706

[23] Gomel Spring https://gomelspring.org/be/news/7860

[24] See Prajdzisviet No. 20 http://prajdzisvet.org/archive/20.html

[25] Independent Israeli Website https://belisrael.info/?tag=evreyskiy-nomer-zhurnala-praydzisvet.

[26] Planeta Belarus https://planetabelarus.by/publications/dorogami-shtetlov-ili-chto-ostalos-ot-bogatogo-evreyskogo-naslediya.

[27] See http://shtetlroutes.eu/ru/about-us/

[28] "Zviazda" Newspaper http://zviazda.by/ru/news/20170430/1493547420-v-belarusi-poyavilis-evreyskie-turisticheskie-marshruty.

"Zviazda" Newspaper http://zviazda.by/ru/news/20170430/1493547420-v-belarusi-poyavilis-evreyskie-turisticheskie-marshruty.

[29] Meir Moiseevich Axelrod (July 5, 1902 – January 10, 1970) was a Soviet artist, a member of the "4 Arts" society, and the creator of the series "Ghetto," "Memories of Old Minsk," and the cycle "German Occupation."

[30] Data from the Office of the Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities https://belarus21.by/New/press-konpherenciya-upolnomochennogo-po-delam-religij-i-nacionalnostej-gulyako-lp.

[31] Union of Belarusian Jewish Public Associations and Communities http://евреи.бел/novosti/belarus/vizit-semej-lazarusov-i-kletterov.-otkrytie-memorialnyh-znakov.html.

[32] See https://www.wikiwand.com/ru/Памятники_жертвам_Холокоста_в_Белоруссии.

[33] The name "Trostenets" refers collectively to the Blagovshchina forest (the site of mass shootings), the camp near the village of Maly Trostenets located 10 kilometers from Minsk along the Mogilev Highway, and the Shashkovka forest (the site of mass burnings of victims). After the war, a landfill was established adjacent to the execution site, and the first memorial sign was only erected there in 2002.

[34] Deutsche Welle https://www.dw.com/ru/как-иностранная-помощь-для-евреев-пополняет-бюджет-беларуси/a-39363929.

Deutsche Welle https://www.dw.com/ru/как-иностранная-помощь-для-евреев-пополняет-бюджет-беларуси/a-39363929.

[35] "On National Minorities in the Republic of Belarus." Law of the Republic of Belarus of November 11, 1992, No. 1926-XII

[36] Thinktanks.by. Belarusian Research Portal https://thinktanks.by/publication/2018/04/03/pew-research-center-v-belarusi-uroven-antisemitizma-13.html. Later surveys reported different statistics (Editor's Note).

[37] S. Charny, "Antisemitism in the Post-Soviet Space: An Overview of the Current Situation," Jews of Europe and Asia: State, Heritage, and Prospects. EAJC Yearbook. Vol. 1 (2018–2019), pp. 57-58

[38] V. Chernin, "Results of the Survey of European Jewish Community Leaders" https://institute.eajc.org/результаты-опроса-еврейских-общинны/.

[39] See V. Kheifets, https://citydog.by/long/diaspory-jews/; "What to Do with Antisemitism in Mogilev, Where There Are Almost No Jews?" https://www.dw.com/ru/a-39143292; E. Ioffe https://lechaim.ru/ARHIV/175/VZR/m02.htm; L. Levin, https://interfax.by/news/policy/raznoe/1118866/; S. Charny, "Antisemitism in the Post-Soviet Space: An Overview of the Current Situation," etc.

[40] Belarusian Jews in Six Stories https://interfax.by/news/obshchestvo/kultura/90126/

Belarusian Jews in Six Stories https://interfax.by/news/obshchestvo/kultura/90126/

[41] Jewish Observer https://jew-observer.com/novosti/sud-v-belarusi-otkazalsya-ostanovit-stroitelstvo-na-byvshem-evrejskom-kladbishhe/.

[42] "L'Chaim" https://lechaim.ru/news/vsemirnyj-evrejskij-kongress-belarus-dolzhna-ostanovit-stroitelstvo-na-meste-ubijstva-evreev/.

[43] The band itself refers to itself as the (Non)Klezmer Band "Zhydovachka." See https://www.facebook.com/pg/zhydovachka.shtetlfolk/about/?ref=page_internal.

[44] Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia https://eleven.co.il/diaspora/regions-and-countries/10487/.