Russian-Speaking Jewry in South Africa: — Formation and Social Environment

Russian-speaking Jews constitute a small and largely inconspicuous segment of the Jewish population in the Republic of South Africa. Unlike Israel, Germany, or the United States, South Africa did not experience mass immigration of Soviet and post-Soviet Jews. Immigrants from the former USSR have not established independent communities in South Africa, nor do they play a significant role in existing ones. They frequently distance themselves from communal Jewish life, showing little of the commitment to Zionism and Judaism characteristic of their South African coreligionists. Nonetheless, there was a period when South African Jewish organizations hoped that their Russian-speaking brethren would replenish local congregations and revitalize their activities, much like the Litvaks who migrated to Southern Africa between the 1880s and 1920s. These expectations were driven by the rise in Jewish emigration from the USSR, occurring simultaneously with an increase in Jewish emigration from South Africa.   

Local organizations welcomed Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union, providing assistance and attempting to integrate them into communal structures. However, it soon became evident that South African and Russian-speaking Jews struggled to find common ground. While they identified as belonging to the same ethnic group (nearly all having two Jewish parents), their attitudes toward Jewish practice and community involvement differed sharply. To South African Jews, the Russian-speaking newcomers appeared more Russian than Jewish, as their lifestyle and behavior lacked the cultural markers South Africans typically associated with Jewish identity. At the same time, the majority of South African and Russian-speaking Jews share a common geographical origin.

Although most South African Jews are third-generation citizens, their ancestors originated from the former Russian Empire and independent Lithuania before World War II. Many of these early immigrants were Russian-speaking and held a nostalgic affection for their homeland. In the early twentieth century, a Jewish journalist in Johannesburg noted with irony: “There are Jews from Russia in South Africa who feel miserable, poor things; they are homesick and lonely. They are so far from their sacred and precious fatherland, far from civilization. ... They are full of common sense and knowledge, saturated with Russian culture from head to toe”[1]. The mindset of South African Jews and that of their Soviet coreligionists developed under vastly different conditions. The ancestors of most South African Jews found religious freedom and the opportunity to develop Jewish culture and community life in emigration. Conversely, the ancestors of today’s Russian-speaking Jews spent most of their lives in the Soviet Union, under an atheist ideology and the stigmatization of Zionism.

This article traces the history of Russian-speaking Jewish immigration to South Africa after World War II, analyzes their interaction with local Jewish communities, and outlines the similarities and differences in Jewish identity between South African Jews and immigrants from the former USSR. Furthermore, it assesses the prospects of integrating Russian-speaking Jews into the country's communal structures, as well as their emigration trends based on recent sociological studies of South African Jewry.

The primary source for this study is data from the only comprehensive research to date on the identity and lifestyle of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa, conducted by the author under the auspices of the Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research at the University of Cape Town[2]. Additionally, material gathered for a monograph on the history of Russian immigration to South Africa and a study of the adaptation of women from the former USSR in the country was utilized[3]. The article also analyzes recent publications by South African sociologists and historians addressing the mentality of South African Jews and the challenges facing their communities. 

It is impossible to establish the exact number of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa. Jewish organizations lack precise records due to the low level of engagement of Russian-speaking Jews in communal activities. In the research conducted by the leading academic institution on the subject—the Kaplan Centre at the University of Cape Town—Russian-speaking Jews are not analyzed as a separate category. Surveys of immigrants from the former USSR, statements by Jewish community leaders, and press reports suggest that several hundred Russian-speaking men and women who identify as Jewish reside permanently in South Africa. Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa do not tend to cluster with local coreligionists and therefore rarely settle in predominantly Jewish neighborhoods. They live not only in major metropolitan areas but also in towns with minor Jewish populations, such as Ballito, Richards Bay, or Stellenbosch. Nevertheless, like native-born South African Jews, they generally prefer to live and work in Johannesburg or Cape Town.

A significant portion of Russian-speaking Jews migrated to South Africa prior to the mid-1990s, when the National Party government encouraged white immigration, including from Eastern Europe. Their motives for leaving their homeland were similar to those that drove the ancestors of South African Jews to emigrate from the Russian Empire: ethnic discrimination, limited opportunities for social mobility and self-realization, and a low standard of living. The Jewish state was the most common destination for Soviet emigrants; thus, from the 1970s onward, most Russian-speaking Jews arrived in South Africa via Israel. Professionals with a command of English could secure employment in South Africa through Israeli recruitment agencies or recommendations from Israeli colleagues. South African companies advertised vacancies in the Israeli press and even conducted job interviews in Israel. Consequently, Russian-speaking specialists arrived in South Africa with pre-arranged employment contracts.

During the years of mass migration, not all Soviet Jews succeeded in adapting to life in Israel, with its distinct ethnic and religious character[4]. Russian-speaking immigrants who relocated to South Africa from Israel often noted that they did not feel professionally or socially integrated in the Jewish state[5]. Furthermore, due to the oversaturation of the Israeli labor market, highly qualified immigrants were frequently unable to find employment matching their credentials.

In the early 1990s, Israel absorbed at least 60,000 Russian-speaking immigrants annually[6]. The challenge of securing comfortable living conditions for their families prompted many newcomers to re-emigrate, with some choosing South Africa. While Russian-speaking Jews relocating to South Africa from Israel had previously secured employment beforehand, in the 1990s they began to emigrate without such preparation. They arrived in South Africa on tourist visas, took any available work, even unpaid, and subsequently obtained residency permits. 

Despite the socio-political uncertainty preceding the first non-racial elections and the ongoing economic crisis, South Africa attracted Russian-speaking Israelis due to the relatively high standard of living enjoyed by the white population and the government's favorable stance toward European immigrants. Facing a shortage of qualified professionals, South African employers, with the tacit support of the authorities, were able to offer good job opportunities to former Soviet citizens. The housing in less affluent areas that many Russian-speaking Jews rented upon arrival was often more spacious and affordable than what they could obtain in Israel.

Nevertheless, Russian-speaking immigration to South Africa never became a mass phenomenon. Soviet Jews generally emigrated to countries that accepted them almost unconditionally: Israel, the United States, and Germany. Information regarding departure procedures to these destinations was readily available via foreign radio broadcasts, samizdat, and, from the late 1980s, domestic media. Conversely, information in the Soviet Union regarding the lives of Russian-speaking immigrants in South Africa or residency application procedures was virtually non-existent. A South African diplomatic mission in Moscow opened only in 1992. Although the National Party government favored white immigration in principle, it provided no financial assistance to immigrants. Preoccupied with rising social tensions and the transition of power to the black majority, the state did not prioritize stimulating legal immigration[7]. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, South African diplomats typically informed prospective Soviet immigrants that the authorities provided no settlement assistance.

During those years, local Jewish communities were still in a position to offer material support to newly arrived immigrants. Having interacted with Jewish charitable organizations in Israel, Russian-speaking Jews naturally turned to similar structures in South Africa, especially since many arrived with very limited resources. Staff at Chabad House in Johannesburg assisted with employment and housing, offered English language classes, and provided food and clothing to those in need. The Jewish Benevolent Society granted substantial interest-free loans repayable over several years. Additionally, immigrants were often able to enroll their children in Jewish day schools tuition-free or at subsidized rates.  

Russian-speaking Jews who have immigrated to South Africa since the mid-1990s, following the accession of the African National Congress (ANC) to power, are generally not driven by an urgent desire to flee their country of origin. Instead, they are typically professionals arriving with pre-arranged contracts with South African employers. There is also a small number of Russian-speaking women who have married South Africans. Among those arriving via a third country, re-migrants from Israel predominate. The majority of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa are highly qualified professionals (doctors, engineers, academics, scientists, economists, and IT specialists), entrepreneurs, and their families. 

Jewish Identity

The attitude of Russian-speaking Jews toward the South African Jewish community remains complex. On one hand, they recognize a shared ethnic origin and the historical, albeit indirect, connection of South African Jews to Russia. They also note similarities in ambition, resourcefulness, and strong family values. On the other hand, Russian-speaking Jews perceive South African Jewry as far more strict in religious observance and adherence to tradition. While the majority of Russian-speaking immigrants consume non-kosher food such as pork, such practices are extremely rare among native South African Jews. According to immigrants from the former USSR, the Jewish identity of South Africans is significantly more "traditional" or even "conservative."

Almost half of married Russian-speaking Jews living in South Africa are in mixed marriages, a rate comparable to that of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. Russian-speaking Jews tend to be more tolerant of intermarriage than their South African coreligionists, among whom mixed marriages were historically rare. However, the situation is evolving: in the 2010s, intermarriage accounted for approximately 17% of all new marriages registered by South African Jews[8].

Russian-speaking Jews generally assume that their South African counterparts are highly religious. Indeed, Jewish identity in South Africa is arguably more closely aligned with religion than in other English-speaking diaspora communities[9]. Local Jews are far more likely than Russian-speaking immigrants to view the Torah not merely as an ancient historical chronicle or moral guide, but as divine revelation[10]. In recent decades, an increasing number of South African Jews observe kashrut, fast on Yom Kippur, attend Passover seders, and refrain from using electricity on Shabbat. Approximately one in three South African Jews considers themselves religious or strictly orthodox, attending synagogue at least once a week[11]. In contrast, the majority of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa identify as non-religious and do not attend synagogue services.

Immigrants from the former USSR do not tie their Jewish identity to religious practice, traditional observance, or support for Israel. This is a direct consequence of several generations of Soviet Jews being raised in a secular environment without access to Jewish day schools or community centers, and under state-sponsored anti-Zionism. For Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa, the primary criteria of Jewishness remain halakhic ancestry (having a Jewish mother) and cultural identification. Thus, Russian-speaking respondents view Jewishness primarily as an ethno-cultural identity, without an essential religious component.

Since the 1990s, the traditionalist core of South African Jewry has gradually contracted. On one hand, there is a trend toward ultra-orthodox communities. In South Africa, where Litvak traditions historically prevailed, the Hasidic "baalei teshuvah" (returnees to faith) movement has expanded. On the other hand, Reform Judaism has seen steady growth. Furthermore, an increasing number of local Jews identify as secular or culturally Jewish. Currently, every second Jewish family in South Africa does not belong to a religious congregation[12]. If the secularization of local Jewry continues—matching broader trends in the global diaspora—it may facilitate closer alignment between Russian-speaking and South African Jews on a non-religious basis.

Although many Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa do not practice Judaism, their sense of Jewish identity, like that of the established community, remains rooted in values derived from Jewish heritage. The majority of surveyed Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa believe that the Jewish people share a unique relationship with the Divine and that an unbreakable bond unites Jews worldwide—a sentiment shared by nearly all South African Jews[13]. Among Jewish rituals, both Russian-speaking and South African Jews most frequently practice lighting Shabbat candles and participating in the Passover seder. For the majority of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa, their Jewish origin is not the most defining aspect of their lives. In contrast, for most native South African Jews, Jewishness is a central element of their identity. Nonetheless, both Russian-speaking and South African respondents generally state that, if given the choice, they would choose to be born Jewish again[14].

"Russian" Jews, Antisemitism, and Israel

A positive attitude toward Israel serves as another point of convergence for Russian-speaking and South African Jews. Among native South Africans, however, this support is more often unconditional and public. The vast majority of South African Jews identify as Zionists and strongly believe that Jews should not publicly support boycotts of Israel[15]. They are deeply concerned by the rise of anti-Israel sentiment and calls by local organizations, particularly Muslim groups, to sever cultural, commercial, and academic ties with Israel. Opponents of Israel in South Africa often argue that the state has no right to exist, branding it as racist and colonialist. To appeal to local audiences, they frequently equate the Israeli-Palestinian conflict with the apartheid-era struggle between black and white South Africans.

The ruling ANC has maintained close ties with the Palestine Liberation Organization since the era when the apartheid regime actively cooperated with the Israeli government. Most South African Jews object to what they perceive as their government's highly biased pro-Palestinian foreign policy.

While anti-Zionist sentiments exist in South African society, their impact should not be overstated. Studies on the attitudes of black South Africans (who constitute the majority of the population) toward Jews reveal that respondents are generally poorly informed about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and express no preference for either side. Furthermore, the term "Zionism" is almost universally associated not with the Jewish national movement, but with the Zion Christian Church, the largest religious denomination in South Africa[16].

Historically, South African Jews felt little pressure to assimilate. In a society strictly segregated along racial and national lines, maintaining ethnic cohesion was relatively straightforward[17]. At the same time, South African Jews faced virtually no state-sponsored discrimination or marginalization, which facilitated their successful acculturation. Jews born in the Soviet Union who immigrated to South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s were often surprised by the local community's lack of familiarity with everyday, grassroots antisemitism.

The anti-Israel campaigns of the last two decades have not translated into a significant rise in domestic antisemitism. Black South Africans have limited interaction with Jewish people and little knowledge of their culture and identity. While they may hold less favorable views of Jews compared to other demographic groups, these views reflect superficial associations rather than deep-seated negative convictions[18]. Active antisemitism does not play a prominent role in South African public life[19]. The anti-Jewish sentiments of some individuals have not influenced state policy. In the context of the ANC's official rejection of racism, a favorable climate exists for public opposition to antisemitic rhetoric.

Antisemitic incidents in South Africa remain relatively rare and isolated. Unlike in other countries with large Jewish populations, South Africa does not experience physical violence against Jews, hate speech campaigns, or the systematic vandalism of Jewish property. South African Jews typically experience antisemitism in the form of verbal harassment or offensive online messages[20]. Such rhetoric is mostly confined to social media, though it occasionally enters the political arena. Because commitment to Zionism is central to the identity of most South African Jews, they tend to view anti-Zionist and anti-Israel campaigns, including calls to boycott Israeli goods, as expressions of antisemitism[21]. Consequently, about a third of South African Jews regard antisemitism as a highly serious national issue.

Communal Engagement

The majority of local Jews are affiliated with Jewish organizations, and one in two volunteers for or donates to Jewish charities. In contrast, very few Russian-speaking immigrants interact with local communal structures. This lack of integration is likely reinforced by a mutual cultural barrier: to South Africans, Russian-speaking Jews appear "too Russian," while to the immigrants, South African Jews seem "too religious." This pattern was recognized early on by South African Jews who assisted Soviet immigrants; once the newcomers achieved financial stability, they typically ceased contact with communal organizations. This disengagement mirrors the stance of Israeli immigrants in the 1980s, one of whom noted: "When South Africans hear I am Israeli, they immediately want to connect. They assume we will understand each other because we are Jewish. But we are not alike; we have entirely different worldviews"[22].

There is another factor explaining the lack of interest among immigrants from the former USSR in South African Jewish associations. In other diaspora settings, Russian-speaking Jews typically join local congregations if doing so accelerates their social mobility and integration into the host society. For instance, to integrate into German society, a Russian-speaking Jew often must first integrate into the German Jewish community, which requires active participation in local Jewish structures[23]. In multicultural South Africa, Russian-speaking Jews apparently feel that local Jewish organizations do not offer comparable pathways to broader integration.

South African Jewish communities remain relatively insular and disengaged from the wider society. Preoccupied with internal matters, they often overlook external outreach. A certain degree of isolation is also characteristic of students in local Jewish day schools, who often interact with other racial and cultural groups only after graduation. Immigrants from the former USSR consistently prefer informal social circles of friends to formal Jewish structures and activities. While native South African Jews tend to socialize almost exclusively with other Jews[24], Russian-speaking Jews associate primarily with other Russian speakers of both Jewish and non-Jewish origin.

Those Russian-speaking Jews who do wish to engage with local communities primarily seek emotional support and a welcoming social environment. Participation in these structures would allow immigrants from the former USSR to reconnect with Jewish heritage and establish social ties within the established community. Such interactions could help both groups realize how much they share. Even when immigrants do not join congregations, they remain willing to raise their children within Jewish traditions. South Africa, with its robust infrastructure of Jewish day schools, youth movements, and religious organizations, offers ideal conditions for this.

The vast majority of Jewish children in South Africa attend Jewish day schools, which parents believe strengthens their Jewish identity and communal ties. Russian-speaking parents generally agree with this view: one in two has either enrolled their children in a Jewish day school or intends to do so, indicating that securing some form of Jewish education for their children remains a priority.

Migration Dilemmas of "Russian" Jews in South Africa

 In the 1990s, South African Jewry faced a profound moral challenge: reckoning with the fact that, in previous decades, Jewish organizations had largely avoided challenging the state policy of racial discrimination (apartheid) to ensure their own survival. However, during this period, immediate practical concerns came to the fore, including rising crime rates, fears for personal safety, declining employment opportunities due to affirmative action policies, and general political and economic instability.

These issues remain unresolved. Furthermore, negative trends affecting the standard of living of South African Jews persist. By 2019, GDP growth had slowed to 0.8%, and the official unemployment rate approached 30%. Moody’s downgraded South Africa’s sovereign credit rating to sub-investment status. Additionally, the government has struggled to curb crime, with South Africa ranking among the highest globally for rates of homicide, sexual assault, and armed robbery. While data from the Kaplan Centre previously indicated that most Jews did not intend to emigrate due to financial stability and career prospects, these factors are increasingly under pressure. Crime, corruption, unemployment, and uncertainty about the country's future deeply concern South Africans, including Russian-speaking Jews, leading to a steady and rapid contraction of the Jewish community due to emigration.

Since the mid-1970s, coinciding with rising political instability, intensive Jewish emigration from South Africa has been underway. In the early decades, these losses were largely offset by high birth rates and immigration. By the mid-1990s, however, the outflow of the Jewish population became highly detrimental to local communities. Estimates suggest that over the past half-century, the Jewish population in South Africa has declined from 118,000 to approximately 52,000, reducing their share of the population to just 0.1%. Consequently, the majority of native-born South African Jews now live abroad[25].

While South African Jewry views this decline as irreversible, local organizations do not actively seek to encourage Jewish immigration to the country. In contrast, Jewish communities in other English-speaking nations (such as Canada and Australia) actively lobby for immigration programs and assist newcomers, including Russian-speaking Israelis, in settling. "Stay home or go home," urges the South African Jewish Board of Deputies (SAJBD). This message advises Jews to either remain in South Africa or return to their historical homeland. The Board actively facilitates aliyah; indeed, every second South African Jew planning to emigrate within the next five years intends to relocate to Israel. It appears that many are drawn not so much by the prospect of living in Israel as by the desire to leave South Africa[26].

Nevertheless, Australia has emerged as the primary destination for Jewish emigrants from South Africa[27]. In the last century, Australia's Jewish population was smaller than South Africa's, but today it is twice as large. Almost a third of the Jewish population in Western Australia consists of South African emigrants. In a recent study by the Kaplan Centre, approximately 85% of respondents stated they did not intend to leave South Africa in the near future. However, the proportion of potential emigrants closely aligns with the most mobile demographic group (aged 20–40) within the community[28]. Although only a minority actually departs, nearly half of South African Jewish respondents across all age groups have considered relocating to another country.

The natural decline of the South African Jewish population, without being offset by immigration, is set to continue for the foreseeable future. South African Jews are generally highly educated and possess skills in high demand in developed economies. The emigration of young professionals and entrepreneurs is particularly pronounced, depleting communal resources, forcing the closure of various Jewish organizations, and intensifying competition among remaining community centers.

Despite the daily challenges faced by South African Jews, many have strong reasons to hesitate before emigrating. Their standard of living remains significantly higher than the national average: the median personal income for Jewish residents is 421,000 ZAR (approximately $30,000 USD) per year before taxes, and almost all Jewish households regularly employ domestic staff[29]. On the whole, Jews are well-positioned to succeed in democratic South Africa. Thanks to excellent education and professional skills, most are engaged in high-value labor, with nearly one in two working as self-employed entrepreneurs or business owners.

Under current conditions, any increase in the number of Russian-speaking Jews in South Africa through immigration is highly unlikely. On the contrary, a further outflow due to emigration is expected, reflecting broader trends within South African Jewry. The gradual integration of Russian-speaking immigrants or their children into local communal life remains possible, particularly given the secularization trends observed among some South African Jews, which have long been present in other English-speaking nations. Due to their small numbers, Russian-speaking Jews will not revitalize South Africa's Jewish communities in the manner anticipated three decades ago. Nonetheless, outstanding individuals from this group (such as Moscow-born Julia Margolis-Rubinstein, elected head of the Southern African Association of Progressive Rabbis in July 2020) and their children may yet play a prominent role in the country’s Jewish public life.  

 Dr. Boris Gorelik (Moscow) – PhD in History, Senior Researcher at the Centre for Southern African Studies, Institute for African Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences

[1] Yakov Azriel Davidson: His Writings in the Yiddish Newspaper ‘Der Afrikaner’: 1911 — 1913. Translated by Veronica Belling. Cape Town: Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research, UCT, 2009, p. 90-91.

[2] For a detailed account of the study’s findings, see: Gorelik B. “A Lost Tribe: Russian-Speaking Jews in South Africa Today”. Occasional Paper Series. No. 8. Cape Town: Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research, University of Cape Town, 2010

[3] Gorelik B., Russian Immigration to South Africa: Yesterday and Today. Moscow: Institute for African Studies, RAS, 2007; Gorelik B., "On the Dark Side of the Earth. Russian Women in South Africa." Africa: The Gender Dimension. Ed. by N. L. Krylova and N. A. Ksenofontova. Moscow: Institute for African Studies, RAS, 2010

[4] Engel V., "Socio-psychological aspects of Jewish emigration from the USSR/CIS in the last third of the 20th and early 21st centuries (using the examples of Israel, the USA, and Germany)." History of the Russian Diaspora. Emigration from the USSR and Russia, 1941–2001: Collection of Articles. Moscow: Institute of Russian History, RAS, 2007, p. 181

[5] Blumenthal I. S. “A barmitzvah for Russian boy, Ari Germann”, South African Jewish Times (Johannesburg). 1985. 22 February

[6] Jewish Emigration from Russia, 1881–2005. Ed. by O. V. Budnitskii. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2008, p. 14

[7] Peberdy S A. Selecting Immigrants: Nationalism and National Identity in South Africa’s Immigration Policies, 1910 to 1998. PhD thesis. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 1999, p. 276

[8] Graham D. The Jews of South Africa in 2019: Identity, Community, Society, Demography. London; Cape Town: Institute for Jewish Policy Research; Isaac and Jessie Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research, University of Cape Town, 2020, p. 6-8

[9] Ibid. P. 35

[10] Bruk S. The Jews of South Africa 2005 — Report on a Research Study. Prepared by Shirley Bruk Research for Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research at the University of Cape Town, May 2006, p. 143

[11] Graham. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 7

[12] Ibid.

[13] Bruk. The Jews of South Africa 2005, p. 129

[14] Ibid. P. 126

[15] Graham. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 8

[16] A Study of Attitudes towards Jews among Black South Africans. Kaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research, University of Cape Town, 2017, p. 2

[17] Mendelsohn R; Shain M. The Jews in South Africa: An Illustrated History. Johannesburg; Cape Town: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2008, p. 214

[18] A Study of Attitudes towards Jews among Black South Africans, p. 2

[19] Shain M. “Antisemitism in South Africa: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives”. Jewish Affairs (Johannesburg). 2009. Vol. 64. No. 1, p. 10

[20] Saks D. “Antisemitism in South Africa in the era of democracy”. DafkaDotCom, 27 August 2019 https://www.dafkadotcom.org/home/antisemitism-in-south-africa-in-the-era-of-democracy

[21] Graham D. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 10

[22] Mendelsohn; Shain. The Jews in South Africa, p. 183

[23] Engel V., "Socio-psychological aspects of Jewish emigration from the USSR/CIS in the last third of the 20th and early 21st centuries." p. 192, 196.

[24] Graham D. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 7

[25] Ibid. P. 5, 27

[26] Ibid. P. 23

[27] Manoim I. “The hollowing out of Jewish South Africa”. DafkaDotCom, 13 May 2020 https://www.dafkadotcom.org/home/the-hollowing-out-of-jewish-south-africa

[28] Graham. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 13

[29] Ibid. The Jews of South Africa in 2019, p. 10